Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher-King
An exclusive excerpt from William O. Stephens and University of Chicago Press
PAC would like to express their deepest thanks to William O. Stephens, Reaktion Books, and University of Chicago Press for this exclusive excerpt from Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher-King.
Marcus Aurelius and the Philosopher-King Ideal
Until philosophers rule as kings in our states or those who are now called kings and rulers seriously and adequately philosophize … states will have no end of troubles.
Plato, Republic V.473d–e
In his masterpiece the Republic, the ancient Athenian philosopher Plato imagines an ideal city called Kallipolis, meaning ‘Beautytown’. In this dialogue, the character Socrates declares that “until philosophers rule as kings in our states or those who are now called kings and rulers seriously and adequately philosophize, and political power and philosophic wisdom are joined, while the motley bunch of natures who presently pursue either one apart from the other are forcibly stopped, states will have no end of troubles, Glaucon, nor, I think, will the human race” (Rep. v.473d–e). The dream of a city ruled by philosopher-kings was never realized in Plato’s life. Nor did his brilliant pupil Aristotle succeed in making his mentee Alexander the Great of Macedon into a philosopher. Neither Julius Caesar nor Augustus (Octavian) was a philosopher. The only ruler in Western history with a philosopher’s chops was Marcus Aurelius. This fascinating man nicknamed ‘Truest’ laboured to govern a troubled empire beset by turmoil.
Marcus Aurelius has cut an intriguing figure for eighteen centuries. Of all Roman emperors, he probably gets the best press. Traditionally, historians regarded him as the last of the ‘five good emperors’. Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus ruled from 96 to 180 CE, a period considered a halcyon age, roughly the second half of the so-called Pax Romana. Marcus … lived during nearly three-quarters of this period, from 121 to 180, and reigned from 161 to 180. But, like the philosopher-kings in Plato’s Republic, Marcus did not want to rule; he reluctantly accepted this duty thrust upon him by the Roman Senate, but only on the condition that his younger, adoptive brother Lucius share imperial power with him as co-emperor. So, Marcus was hardly hungry for power. Rather, he presided over the first stirrings of the flood of troubles that would nearly destroy the empire in the next century. The ‘hurricane’ that contributed significantly to that flood was the pandemic known as the Antonine Plague; this event and its consequences will be explored in this book.
From the mid-sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, Christian historians sanctified Marcus and regarded him as a saint. This was largely because of the pious virtues and soaring devotion to the divine exuded in his private philosophical journal. Since the early nineteenth century, however, more than a few Christian historians and theologians rejected this sanctification and blamed him for the persecution of Christians and violent execution of martyrs during his reign. This controversy will also be examined in some detail. …
Throughout the pagan historiography in antiquity and medieval times, Marcus Aurelius is without exception considered the ideal emperor because of his philosophical education. After his death, Marcus’ contemporary Lucian refers to him as “the god”. The biographer of the Historia Augusta emphasizes that the success of his reign was due to his clementia (clemency), which grew out of his philosophy. In Tertullian’s Apology (c. 197 CE), Marcus is called a guardian (protector) of Christianity. During the Northern Wars (166–180 CE), when Marcus and his soldiers were close to dying of thirst, a few Christians among the soldiers prayed, it rained, and they were saved. Tertullian therefore concludes that the emperor must have been grateful to the Christians. The Roman historian and civil servant Herodian (c. 170–c. 240 CE) writes, “Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life.”
Admiration for Marcus Aurelius among modern historians is common despite the treatment some Christians suffered under his rule. A representative of this group writes, “I would not venture to say that Marcus Aurelius was an abler man than Constantine, but I can say in all good faith that he came far nearer living a Christian life than did the first Christian emperor.” This sentiment is as much the consequence of the details of how he ruled as passed down by historians as it is the result of centuries of readers who adore his earnest, repetitive and fascinating set of philosophical reflections and reminders. …
Marcus’ ‘journal’ appears to be a set of reflections on redundant themes, written only for his own personal edification and philosophical therapy. As far as we know he never intended anyone else to read these writings. No evidence indicates that Marcus gave them any title at all. So, how should we refer to this work? A few early translators opted to title it To Himself. I will not follow the custom begun in 1634 of calling it Meditations. Thirteen centuries earlier, in 364 CE, Themistius called them ‘exhortations’. George Long simply titled them Thoughts in 1862. An anonymous reviewer of Ernest Renan’s Marc-Aurele et la fin du monde antique calls them ‘the memorandum of books of his Thoughts’.
There are five reasons it is better to call Marcus’ notes Memoranda. First, this more accurately describes their content. Many entries contain exhortations to ‘remember’, ‘remind yourself ’, ‘bear in mind’, ‘don’t forget’ or ‘forget everything else’. Memory and being remembered or forgotten are themes often emphasized. Marcus himself mentions his own hypomnemata (iii.14), that is, memoranda. Thus, remembering and forgetting are motifs fundamental to these writings. Second, Book One is entirely devoted to memorializing the virtues modelled to Marcus by his loved ones, mentors, teachers, tutors and role models. Third, Marcus’ notes do not rehearse an ancient practice thought to have originated in India around 1500 BCE. This practice is not what Marcus is up to in these writings. Fourth, calling them ‘meditations’ in the context of the history of Western philosophy falsely implies a close kinship with later works of the same title, including various medieval Meditationes and the famous treatise of René Descartes. Fifth, though written in Greek, the Latin title Memoranda … befits its Roman author. …
Today, Marcus pops up often on the Internet. Thousands looking to get a grip on their emotions and live more intentionally have found their way to the writings of the ancient Stoics. These folks are not academics who write books that collect dust on the shelves of university libraries. They want to practise what Stoics preach. They strive to replace bad habits of thought, speech and action with good habits that enrich their interactions with family and friends, neighbours, co-workers and strangers. Stoic practitioners labour to rid themselves of fear, anger and greed. For sustenance, these hungry modern Stoics gobble up the pages of the emperor’s Memoranda. So it is no wonder that the therapeutic power of Marcus’ philosophy equally appeals to Hollywood celebrities like Jerry Seinfeld and Anna Kendrick. In the worlds of business and politics, the Stoic emperor is praised for modelling leadership. Steve Forbes plugs the Memoranda as “a must read for business leaders.” The emperor was similarly invoked as a standard of leadership on television on 13 September 1999. Three months after George W. Bush announced his presidential candidacy, the paleoconservative commentator Pat Buchanan told Larry King that with Bush we’re “not dealing with Marcus Aurelius here.” But among readers of the emperor’s philosophical journal, humble Stoic practitioners far outnumber politicians, pundits and celebrities. This is partly because the reach of the Memoranda is global. Translations include Italian, modern Greek, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, Danish, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Turkish, Arabic, Malayalam and Mandarin Chinese. Wen Jiabao, the premier of China from 2003 to 2013, is reputed to have read the book over a hundred times. The emperor’s big-picture, sobering reminders also calm the fiery Northern Irish pro golfer Rory McIlroy. This book will sketch Marcus’ legacy in conclusion.
William O. Stephens is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Creighton University in Nebraska. His interests include ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, Stoicism as a way of life, Stoicism and popular culture, ethics, animals, and the environment. He is the author of several books on philosophy, including Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed, Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom and,Epictetus’s ‘Enchiridion’: A New Translation and Guide to Stoic Ethics. His most recent title is Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher-King.